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Semiconductor materials are nominally small band gap insulators. The defining property of a semiconductor material is that it can be compromised by doping it with impurities that alter its electronic properties in a controllable way.cite-ref-1[1] Because of their application in the computer and photovoltaic industry—in devices such as transistors, lasers, and solar cells—the search for new semiconductor materials and the improvement of existing materials is an important field of study in materials science.

Most commonly used semiconductor materials are crystalline inorganic solids. These materials are classified according to the periodic table groups of their constituent atoms.

Different semiconductor materials differ in their properties. Thus, in comparison with silicon, compound semiconductors have both advantages and disadvantages. For example, gallium arsenide (GaAs) has six times higher electron mobility than silicon, which allows faster operation; wider band gap, which allows operation of power devices at higher temperatures, and gives lower thermal noise to low power devices at room temperature; its direct band gap gives it more favorable optoelectronic properties than the indirect band gap of silicon; it can be alloyed to ternary and quaternary compositions, with adjustable band gap width, allowing light emission at chosen wavelengths, which makes possible matching to the wavelengths most efficiently transmitted through optical fibers. GaAs can be also grown in a semi-insulating form, which is suitable as a lattice-matching insulating substrate for GaAs devices. Conversely, silicon is robust, cheap, and easy to process, whereas GaAs is brittle and expensive, and insulation layers cannot be created by just growing an oxide layer; GaAs is therefore used only where silicon is not sufficient.cite-ref-2[2]

By alloying multiple compounds, some semiconductor materials are tunable, e.g., in band gap or lattice constant. The result is ternary, quaternary, or even quinary compositions. Ternary compositions allow adjusting the band gap within the range of the involved binary compounds; however, in case of combination of direct and indirect band gap materials there is a ratio where indirect band gap prevails, limiting the range usable for optoelectronics; e.g. AlGaAs LEDs are limited to 660 nm by this. Lattice constants of the compounds also tend to be different, and the lattice mismatch against the substrate, dependent on the mixing ratio, causes defects in amounts dependent on the mismatch magnitude; this influences the ratio of achievable radiative/nonradiative recombinations and determines the luminous efficiency of the device. Quaternary and higher compositions allow adjusting simultaneously the band gap and the lattice constant, allowing increasing radiant efficiency at wider range of wavelengths; for example AlGaInP is used for LEDs. Materials transparent to the generated wavelength of light are advantageous, as this allows more efficient extraction of photons from the bulk of the material. That is, in such transparent materials, light production is not limited to just the surface. Index of refraction is also composition-dependent and influences the extraction efficiency of photons from the material.cite-ref-handopto-3-0[3]

• Types of semiconductor materials

• Compound semiconductors

• Fabrication

• Table of semiconductor materials

• Table of semiconductor alloy systems

• See also

• References

• Group III elemental semiconductors, (B)

• Group IV elemental semiconductors, (C, Si, and Ge)

• Group IV compound semiconductors

• Group VI elemental semiconductors, (Se and Te)

• III–V semiconductors: Crystallizing with high degree of stoichiometry, most can be obtained as both n-type and p-type. Many have high carrier mobilities and direct energy gaps, making them useful for optoelectronics. (See also: Template:III-V compounds.)

• II–VI semiconductors: usually p-type, except ZnTe and ZnO which are n-type

• I–VII semiconductors

• IV–VI semiconductors

• V–VI semiconductors

• II–V semiconductors

• I–III–VI2 semiconductors

• Oxides

• Layered semiconductors

• Magnetic semiconductors

• Organic semiconductors

• Charge-transfer complexes

• Some of MOFs.

• Others

A compound semiconductor is a semiconductor compound composed of chemical elements of at least two different species. These semiconductors form for example in periodic table groups 13–15 (old groups III–V), for example of elements from the Boron group (old group III, boron, aluminium, gallium, indium) and from group 15 (old group V, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth). The range of possible formulae is quite broad because these elements can form binary (two elements, e.g. gallium(III) arsenide (GaAs)), ternary (three elements, e.g. indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)) and quaternary alloys (four elements) such as aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlInGaP)) alloy and Indium arsenide antimonide phosphide (InAsSbP). The properties of III-V compound semiconductors are similar to their group IV counterparts. The higher ionicity in these compounds, and especially in the II-VI compound, tends to increase the fundamental bandgap with respect to the less ionic compounds.cite-ref-4[4]

Metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) is the most popular deposition technology for the formation of compound semiconducting thin films for devices. It uses ultrapure metalorganics and/or hydrides as precursor source materials in an ambient gas such as hydrogen.

Other techniques of choice include:

• Molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE)

• Hydride vapor-phase epitaxy (HVPE)

• Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)

• Metal-organic molecular-beam epitaxy (MOMBE)

• Atomic layer deposition (ALD)

| Group | Elem. | Material |

|---|---|---|

| IV | 1 | Silicon |

| IV | 1 | Germanium |

| IV | 1 | Diamond |

| IV | 1 | Gray tin , α -Sn |

| IV | 2 | Silicon carbide , 3C-SiC |

| IV | 2 | Silicon carbide , 4H-SiC |

| IV | 2 | Silicon carbide , 6H-SiC |

| VI | 1 | Sulfur , α -S |

| VI | 1 | Gray (trigonal) selenium |

| VI | 1 | Red selenium |

| VI | 1 | Tellurium |

| III-V | 2 | Boron nitride , cubic |

| III-V | 2 | Boron nitride , hexagonal |

| III-V | 2 | Boron nitride nanotube |

| III-V | 2 | Boron phosphide |

| III-V | 2 | Boron arsenide |

| III-V | 2 | Boron arsenide |

| III-V | 2 | Aluminium nitride |

| III-V | 2 | Aluminium phosphide |

| III-V | 2 | Aluminium arsenide |

| III-V | 2 | Aluminium antimonide |

| III-V | 2 | Gallium nitride |

| III-V | 2 | Gallium phosphide |

| III-V | 2 | Gallium arsenide |

| III-V | 2 | Gallium antimonide |

| III-V | 2 | Indium nitride |

| III-V | 2 | Indium phosphide |

| III-V | 2 | Indium arsenide |

| III-V | 2 | Indium antimonide |

| II-VI | 2 | Cadmium selenide |

| II-VI | 2 | Cadmium sulfide |

| II-VI | 2 | Cadmium telluride |

| II-VI, oxide | 2 | Zinc oxide |

| II-VI | 2 | Zinc selenide |

| II-VI | 2 | Zinc sulfide |

| II-VI | 2 | Zinc telluride |

| I-VII | 2 | Cuprous chloride |

| I-VI | 2 | Copper(I) sulfide |

| IV-VI | 2 | Lead selenide |

| IV-VI | 2 | Lead(II) sulfide |

| IV-VI | 2 | Lead telluride |

| IV-VI | 2 | Tin(II) sulfide |

| IV-VI | 2 | Tin(IV) sulfide |

| IV-VI | 2 | Tin telluride |

| V-VI, layered | 2 | Bismuth telluride |

| II-V | 2 | Cadmium phosphide |

| II-V | 2 | Cadmium arsenide |

| II-V | 2 | Zinc phosphide |

| II-V | 2 | Zinc diphosphide |

| II-V | 2 | Zinc arsenide |

| II-V | 2 | Zinc antimonide |

| Oxide | 2 | Titanium dioxide , anatase |

| Oxide | 2 | Titanium dioxide , rutile |

| Oxide | 2 | Titanium dioxide , brookite |

| Oxide | 2 | Copper(I) oxide |

| Oxide | 2 | Copper(II) oxide |

| Oxide | 2 | Uranium dioxide |

| Oxide | 2 | Tin dioxide |

| Oxide | 3 | Barium titanate |

| Oxide | 3 | Strontium titanate |

| Oxide | 3 | Lithium niobate |

| Oxide, V-VI | 2 | monoclinic Vanadium(IV) oxide |

| Layered | 2 | Lead(II) iodide |

| Layered | 2 | Molybdenum disulfide |

| Layered | 2 | Gallium selenide |

| Layered | 2 | Indium selenide |

| Layered | 2 | Tin sulfide |

| Layered | 2 | Bismuth sulfide |

| Magnetic, diluted (DMS) | 3 | Gallium manganese arsenide |

| Magnetic, diluted (DMS) | 3 | Lead manganese telluride |

| Magnetic | 4 | Lanthanum calcium manganate |

| Magnetic | 2 | Iron(II) oxide |

| Magnetic | 2 | Nickel(II) oxide |

| Magnetic | 2 | Europium(II) oxide |

| Magnetic | 2 | Europium(II) sulfide |

| Magnetic | 2 | Chromium(III) bromide |

| other | 3 | Copper indium selenide , CIS |

| other | 3 | Silver gallium sulfide |

| other | 3 | Zinc silicon phosphide |

| other | 2 | Arsenic trisulfide Orpiment |

| other | 2 | Arsenic sulfide Realgar |

| other | 2 | Platinum silicide |

| other | 2 | Bismuth(III) iodide |

| other | 2 | Mercury(II) iodide |

| other | 2 | Thallium(I) bromide |

| other | 2 | Silver sulfide |

| other | 2 | Iron disulfide |

| other | 4 | Copper zinc tin sulfide , CZTS |

| other | 4 | Copper zinc antimony sulfide , CZAS |

| other | 3 | Copper tin sulfide, CTS |

| Group | Formula | Band gap ( eV ) |

|---|---|---|

| IV | Si | 1.12 |

| IV | Ge | 0.67 |

| IV | C | 5.47 |

| IV | Sn | 0 |

| IV | SiC | 2.3 |

| IV | SiC | 3.3 |

| IV | SiC | 3.0 |

| VI | S 8 | 2.6 |

| VI | Se | 1.83–2.0 |

| VI | Se | 2.05 |

| VI | Te | 0.33 |

| III-V | BN | 6.36 |

| III-V | BN | 5.96 |

| III-V | BN | 5.5 |

| III-V | BP | 2.1 |

| III-V | BAs | 1.82 |

| III-V | B 12 As 2 | 3.47 |

| III-V | AlN | 6.28 |

| III-V | AlP | 2.45 |

| III-V | AlAs | 2.16 |

| III-V | AlSb | 1.6/2.2 |

| III-V | GaN | 3.44 |

| III-V | GaP | 2.26 |

| III-V | GaAs | 1.42 |

| III-V | GaSb | 0.73 |

| III-V | InN | 0.7 |

| III-V | InP | 1.35 |

| III-V | InAs | 0.36 |

| III-V | InSb | 0.17 |

| II-VI | CdSe | 1.74 |

| II-VI | CdS | 2.42 |

| II-VI | CdTe | 1.49 |

| II-VI, oxide | ZnO | 3.37 |

| II-VI | ZnSe | 2.7 |

| II-VI | ZnS | 3.54/3.91 |

| II-VI | ZnTe | 2.3 |

| I-VII | CuCl | 3.4 |

| I-VI | Cu 2 S | 1.2 |

| IV-VI | PbSe | 0.26 |

| IV-VI | PbS | 0.37 |

| IV-VI | PbTe | 0.32 |

| IV-VI | SnS | 1.3/1.0 |

| IV-VI | SnS 2 | 2.2 |

| IV-VI | SnTe | 0.18 |

| V-VI, layered | Bi 2 Te 3 | 0.13 |

| II-V | Cd 3 P 2 | 0.5 |

| II-V | Cd 3 As 2 | 0 |

| II-V | Zn 3 P 2 | 1.5 |

| II-V | ZnP 2 | 2.1 |

| II-V | Zn 3 As 2 | 1.0 |

| II-V | Zn 3 Sb 2 | |

| Oxide | TiO 2 | 3.20 |

| Oxide | TiO 2 | 3.0 |

| Oxide | TiO 2 | 3.26 |

| Oxide | Cu 2 O | 2.17 |

| Oxide | CuO | 1.2 |

| Oxide | UO 2 | 1.3 |

| Oxide | SnO 2 | 3.7 |

| Oxide | BaTiO 3 | 3 |

| Oxide | SrTiO 3 | 3.3 |

| Oxide | LiNbO 3 | 4 |

| Oxide, V-VI | VO 2 | 0.7 |

| Layered | PbI 2 | 2.4 |

| Layered | MoS 2 | 1.23 eV (2H) |

| Layered | GaSe | 2.1 |

| Layered | InSe | 1.26–2.35 eV |

| Layered | SnS | >1.5 eV |

| Layered | Bi 2 S 3 | 1.3 |

| Magnetic, diluted (DMS) | GaMnAs | |

| Magnetic, diluted (DMS) | PbMnTe | |

| Magnetic | La 0.7 Ca 0.3 MnO 3 | |

| Magnetic | FeO | 2.2 |

| Magnetic | NiO | 3.6–4.0 |

| Magnetic | EuO | |

| Magnetic | EuS | |

| Magnetic | CrBr 3 | |

| other | CuInSe 2 | 1 |

| other | AgGaS 2 | |

| other | ZnSiP 2 | 2.0 |

| other | As 2 S 3 | 2.7 |

| other | As 4 S 4 | |

| other | PtSi | |

| other | BiI 3 | |

| other | HgI 2 | |

| other | TlBr | 2.68 |

| other | Ag 2 S | 0.9 |

| other | FeS 2 | 0.95 |

| other | Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 | 1.49 |

| other | Cu 1.18 Zn 0.40 Sb 1.90 S 7.2 | 2.2 |

| other | Cu 2 SnS 3 | 0.91 |

| Group | Gap type | Description |

|---|---|---|

| IV | indirect | Used in conventional crystalline silico… |

| IV | indirect | Used in early radar detection diodes an… |

| IV | indirect | Excellent thermal conductivity. Superio… |

| IV | semimetal | Low temperature allotrope (diamond cubi… |

| IV | indirect | Used for early yellow LEDs |

| IV | indirect | Used for high-voltage and high-temperat… |

| IV | indirect | Used for early blue LEDs |

| VI | indirect | Used in selenium rectifiers and solar c… |

| VI | indirect | |

| III-V | indirect | Potentially useful for ultraviolet LEDs |

| III-V | quasi-direct | Potentially useful for ultraviolet LEDs |

| III-V | indirect | |

| III-V | direct | Ultrahigh thermal conductivity for ther… |

| III-V | indirect | Resistant to radiation damage , possibl… |

| III-V | direct | Piezoelectric. Not used on its own as a… |

| III-V | indirect | |

| III-V | indirect | |

| III-V | indirect/direct | |

| III-V | direct | Problematic to be doped to p-type, p-do… |

| III-V | indirect | Used in early low to medium brightness… |

| III-V | direct | Second most common in use after silicon… |

| III-V | direct | Used for infrared detectors and LEDs an… |

| III-V | direct | Possible use in solar cells, but p-type… |

| III-V | direct | Commonly used as substrate for epitaxia… |

| III-V | direct | Used for infrared detectors for 1–3.8 μ… |

| III-V | direct | Used in infrared detectors and thermal… |

| II-VI | direct | Nanoparticles used as quantum dots . In… |

| II-VI | direct | Used in photoresistors and solar cells;… |

| II-VI | direct | Used in solar cells with CdS. Used in t… |

| II-VI, oxide | direct | Photocatalytic. Band gap is tunable fro… |

| II-VI | direct | Used for blue lasers and LEDs. Easy to… |

| II-VI | direct | Band gap 3.54 eV (cubic), 3.91 (hexagon… |

| II-VI | direct | Can be grown on AlSb, GaSb, InAs, and P… |

| I-VII | direct | |

| I-VI | indirect | p-type, Cu 2 S/CdS was the first effici… |

| IV-VI | direct | Used in infrared detectors for thermal… |

| IV-VI | | Mineral galena , first semiconductor in… |

| IV-VI | | Low thermal conductivity, good thermoel… |

| IV-VI | direct/indirect | Tin sulfide (SnS) is a semiconductor wi… |

| IV-VI | | SnS 2 is widely used in gas sensing app… |

| IV-VI | direct | Complex band structure. |

| V-VI, layered | | Efficient thermoelectric material near… |

| II-V | | N-type intrinsic semiconductor. Very hi… |

| II-V | direct | Usually p-type. |

| II-V | | The lowest direct and indirect bandgaps… |

| II-V | | Used in infrared detectors and thermal… |

| Oxide | indirect | Photocatalytic, n-type |

| Oxide | direct | Photocatalytic, n-type |

| Oxide | | One of the most studied semiconductors.… |

| Oxide | | N-type semiconductor. |

| Oxide | | High Seebeck coefficient , resistant to… |

| Oxide | | Oxygen-deficient n-type semiconductor.… |

| Oxide | | Ferroelectric , piezoelectric . Used in… |

| Oxide | | Ferroelectric , piezoelectric . Used in… |

| Oxide | | Ferroelectric, piezoelectric, shows Poc… |

| Oxide, V-VI | optical | Stable below 67 °C |

| Layered | | PbI 2 is a layered direct bandgap semic… |

| Layered | indirect | |

| Layered | indirect | Photoconductor. Uses in nonlinear optic… |

| Layered | direct (indirect in 2D) | Air sensitive. High electrical mobility… |

| Layered | direct | |

| Magnetic | | Colossal magnetoresistance |

| Magnetic | | Antiferromagnetic . Band gap for iron o… |

| Magnetic | direct | Antiferromagnetic |

| Magnetic | | Ferromagnetic |

| Magnetic | | Ferromagnetic |

| other | direct | |

| other | | Nonlinear optical properties |

| other | direct | Semiconductive in both crystalline and… |

| other | | Semiconductive in both crystalline and… |

| other | | Used in infrared detectors for 1–5 μm.… |

| other | | Used in some gamma-ray and x-ray detect… |

| other | | Used in some gamma-ray and x-ray detect… |

| other | | Mineral pyrite . Used in later cat's wh… |

| other | direct | Cu 2 ZnSnS 4 is derived from CIGS, repl… |

| other | direct | Copper zinc antimony sulfide is derived… |

| other | direct | Cu 2 SnS 3 is p-type semiconductor and… |

The following semiconducting systems can be tuned to some extent, and represent not a single material but a class of materials.

| Group | Elem. | Material class | Formula |

|---|---|---|---|

| Group | Elem. | Material class | Formula |

| IV-VI | 3 | Lead tin telluride | Pb 1−x Sn x Te |

| IV | 2 | Silicon-germanium | Si 1− x Ge x |

| IV | 2 | Silicon-tin | Si 1− x Sn x |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium gallium arsenide | Al x Ga 1− x As |

| III-V | 3 | Indium gallium arsenide | In x Ga 1− x As |

| III-V | 3 | Indium gallium phosphide | In x Ga 1− x P |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium indium arsenide | Al x In 1− x As |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium gallium antimonide | Al x Ga 1− x Sb |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium indium antimonide | Al x In 1− x Sb |

| III-V | 3 | Gallium arsenide nitride | GaAsN |

| III-V | 3 | Gallium arsenide phosphide | GaAsP |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium arsenide antimonide | AlAsSb |

| III-V | 3 | Gallium arsenide antimonide | GaAsSb |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium gallium nitride | AlGaN |

| III-V | 3 | Aluminium gallium phosphide | AlGaP |

| III-V | 3 | Indium gallium nitride | InGaN |

| III-V | 3 | Indium arsenide antimonide | InAsSb |

| III-V | 3 | Indium gallium antimonide | InGaSb |

| III-V | 4 | Aluminium gallium indium phosphide | AlGaInP |

| III-V | 4 | Aluminium gallium arsenide phosphide | AlGaAsP |

| III-V | 4 | Indium gallium arsenide phosphide | InGaAsP |

| III-V | 4 | Indium gallium arsenide antimonide | InGaAsSb |

| III-V | 4 | Indium arsenide antimonide phosphide | InAsSbP |

| III-V | 4 | Aluminium indium arsenide phosphide | AlInAsP |

| III-V | 4 | Aluminium gallium arsenide nitride | AlGaAsN |

| III-V | 4 | Indium gallium arsenide nitride | InGaAsN |

| III-V | 4 | Indium aluminium arsenide nitride | InAlAsN |

| III-V | 4 | Gallium arsenide antimonide nitride | GaAsSbN |

| III-V | 5 | Gallium indium nitride arsenide antimon… | GaInNAsSb |

| III-V | 5 | Gallium indium arsenide antimonide phos… | GaInAsSbP |

| II-VI | 3 | Cadmium zinc telluride , CZT | CdZnTe |

| II-VI | 3 | Mercury cadmium telluride | HgCdTe |

| II-VI | 3 | Mercury zinc telluride | HgZnTe |

| II-VI | 3 | Mercury zinc selenide | HgZnSe |

| II-V | 4 | Zinc cadmium phosphide arsenide | (Zn 1−x Cd x ) 3 (P 1−y As y ) 2 |

| other | 4 | Copper indium gallium selenide , CIGS | Cu(In,Ga)Se 2 |

| Group | Band gap ( eV ) | | Gap type | Description |

|---|---|---|---|---|

| Group | Lower | Upper | Gap type | Description |

| IV-VI | 0 | 0.29 | | Used in infrared detectors and for ther… |

| IV | 0.67 | 1.11 | direct/indirect | Adjustable band gap, allows constructio… |

| IV | 1.0 | 1.11 | indirect | Adjustable band gap. |

| III-V | 1.42 | 2.16 | direct/indirect | Direct band gap for x<0.4 (correspondin… |

| III-V | 0.36 | 1.43 | direct | Well-developed material. Can be lattice… |

| III-V | 1.35 | 2.26 | direct/indirect | Used for HEMT and HBT structures and hi… |

| III-V | 0.36 | 2.16 | direct/indirect | Buffer layer in metamorphic HEMT transi… |

| III-V | 0.7 | 1.61 | direct/indirect | Used in HBTs , HEMTs , resonant-tunneli… |

| III-V | 0.17 | 1.61 | direct/indirect | Used as a buffer layer in InSb-based qu… |

| III-V | 1.43 | 2.26 | direct/indirect | Used in red, orange and yellow LEDs. Of… |

| III-V | 1.61 | 2.16 | indirect | Used as a barrier layer in infrared pho… |

| III-V | 0.7 | 1.42 | direct | Used in HBTs and in tunnel junctions in… |

| III-V | 3.44 | 6.28 | direct | Used in blue laser diodes , ultraviolet… |

| III-V | 2.26 | 2.45 | indirect | Used in some green LEDs. |

| III-V | 2 | 3.4 | direct | In x Ga 1–x N, x usually between 0.02 a… |

| III-V | 0.17 | 0.36 | direct | Primarily used in mid- and long-wave in… |

| III-V | 0.17 | 0.7 | direct | Used in some transistors and infrared p… |

| III-V | | | direct/indirect | Also InAlGaP, InGaAlP, AlInGaP; for lat… |

| III-V | | | | Use in thermophotovoltaics . |

| III-V | | | | Use in thermophotovoltaics . |

| III-V | | | | Can be grown on InAs, GaSb, and other s… |

| II-VI | 1.4 | 2.2 | direct | Efficient solid-state x-ray and gamma-r… |

| II-VI | 0 | 1.5 | | Known as "MerCad". Extensive use in sen… |

| II-VI | 0 | 2.25 | | Used in infrared detectors, infrared im… |

| II-V | 0 | 1.5 | | Various applications in optoelectronics… |

| other | 1 | 1.7 | direct | CuIn x Ga 1–x Se 2 . Polycrystalline. U… |

• Heterojunction

• Organic semiconductors

• Semiconductor characterization techniques

cite-note-11. ↑ citerefjones-e-d-1991Jones, E.D. (1991). "Control of Semiconductor Conductivity by Doping". In Miller, L. S.; Mullin, J. B. (eds.). Electronic Materials. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 155–171. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3818-9_12. ISBN 978-1-4613-6703-1.

cite-note-22. ↑ Milton Ohring Reliability and failure of electronic materials and devices Academic Press, 1998, ISBN 0-12-524985-3, p. 310.

cite-note-handopto-33. ↑ John Dakin, Robert G. W. Brown Handbook of optoelectronics, Volume 1, CRC Press, 2006 ISBN 0-7503-0646-7 p. 57

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